Applying the SLB Algorithm

Background

In a conventional quantization method, a gradient is usually calculated by using straight through estimator (STE) [1] or a self-designed gradient calculation manner [2]. Due to that the quantization function is not differentiable, an error usually occurs in a calculated gradient. An inaccurate optimization direction results in relatively poor final inference performance. Therefore, there is an urgent need for a quantitative neural network learning method that can avoid this inaccurate gradient estimation.

Algorithm Principles

Searching for low-bit weights (SLB) [3] is a weight quantization algorithm developed by Huawei Noah’s Ark Lab. It provides a low-bit quantization algorithm based on weight search to avoid inaccurate gradient estimation. For quantization of a low-bit network, the number of effective solutions for quantizing the network weight is small. Therefore, the quantization of the network may be implemented through weight search, that is, the quantization process is converted into a weight search process. A group of quantization weights are preset for the quantization network, and then a probability matrix is defined to represent the probability that different quantization weights are retained. In the training phase, the network weights are quantized by optimizing the probability matrix.

The figure on the left shows the traditional quantization algorithm used to do binary quantization. During training, the floating-point weights are updated with inaccurate gradients. Finally, the floating-point weights are processed by binarization (sigmoid function) to obtain the quantized weights. The figure on the right shows the SLB quantization algorithm used to do binary quantization. It uses the continuous relaxation strategy to search for discrete weights, optimizes the weight probability matrix of discrete weights during training, and selects discrete weights based on the probability to implement quantization. The single value corresponding to the red dots in the left figure is obtained by the sigmoid function, which represents the probability that the weight is quantized to -1. The single value corresponding to the blue dots is obtained by the sigmoid function, which represents the probability that the weight is quantized to +1. Inaccurate gradient update in traditional quantization algorithm will affect the update of floating point weight, resulting in a large deviation in the probability here. The two values corresponding to the red and blue dots in the right figure are obtained by the softmax function and represent the probability that the weight is quantized to -1 or +1. By avoiding inaccurate gradient updates, the probability is more accurate.

SLB algorithm comparison

Temperature Factor

In classification tasks, softmax distribution is used to calculate the probability that the output is classified into different classes. Therefore, the SLB also uses softmax distribution to calculate the probability that a weight is quantized into each quantized weight, and finally selects a corresponding weight as a quantization result based on the maximum probability. To improve the confidence of the quantization result, the SLB introduces a temperature factor. By gradually adjusting the temperature factor, the softmax distribution gradually becomes steep and gradually approaches the one-hot distribution, thereby maximizing the confidence of the quantization result and reducing the error.

The formula on the left is a standard softmax function, and the formula on the right is the softmax function after the temperature factor is introduced in the SLB algorithm.

Softmax function

The following figure shows the change process of softmax distribution when the temperature factor is gradually adjusted. The rightmost figure shows the one-hot distribution.

Softmax distribution change

Algorithm Features

A new weight search method is proposed for training quantization deep neural networks, which can avoid inaccurate gradient estimation.
The continuous relaxation strategy is used to search for discrete weights, optimize the probability distribution of discrete weights during training, and finally select discrete weights according to the probability to realize quantization.
In order to further eliminate the inference performance gap after search and ensure the consistency of training and testing, a strategy of gradually adjusting the temperature factor is proposed.
Compared with the traditional quantization algorithm, this algorithm avoids the inaccurate gradient updating process, obtains better inference performance, and has more advantages in very low bit quantization.

SLB Quantization Training

The training specifications of SLB quantization algorithm are shown in the following table.

Table 1: SLB quantization training specifications

Specifications	Description
Hardware	GPU
Networks	ResNet-18. For details, see https://gitee.com/mindspore/models/blob/r2.0/official/cv/ResNet/README.md#apply-algorithm-in-mindspore-golden-stick.
Solutions	Supports 1-, 2-, and 4-bit weight quantization solutions, and supports 8-bit activation quantization solutions.
Data types	The GPU platform supports FP32.
Running modes	Graph mode and PyNative mode.

SLB Quantization Training Example

The procedure of SLB quantization training is the same as that of common training. Additional operations need to be performed in the phases of defining a quantization network and generating a quantization model. The complete process is as follows:

Load the dataset and process data.
Define a network.
Define the SLB quantization algorithm and use the algorithm to generate a quantization model.
Define the optimizer, loss function, and callbacks.
Train the network and save the model file.
Load the model file and compare the accuracy after quantization.

The following uses the ResNet18 as an example to describe these steps.

For details about the complete code, see ResNet model repository. train.py is the complete training code, and eval.py is the accuracy verification code.

Loading a Dataset

dataset = create_dataset(dataset_path=config.data_path, do_train=True,
                         batch_size=config.batch_size, train_image_size=config.train_image_size,
                         eval_image_size=config.eval_image_size, target=config.device_target,
                         distribute=config.run_distribute)

In the code, create_dataset is referenced from dataset.py, and config.data_path and config.batch_size are configured in the configuration file.

Defining the Original Network

from src.resnet import resnet18 as resnet

...
net = resnet(class_num=config.class_num)
print(net)

The original network structure is as follows:

ResNet<
  (conv1): Conv2d<input_channels=3, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(7, 7), stride=(2, 2), pad_mode=pad, padding=3, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
  (bn1): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=1e-05, momentum=0.9, gamma=Parameter (name=bn1.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=bn1.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=bn1.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=bn1.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
  (pad): Pad<>
  (maxpool): MaxPool2d<kernel_size=3, stride=2, pad_mode=VALID>
  (layer1): SequentialCell<
    (0): ResidualBlockBase<
      (conv1): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn1d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn1d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn1d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn1d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn1d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (conv2): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn2d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn2d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn2d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn2d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1.0.bn2d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (relu): ReLU<>
      >
    (1): ResidualBlockBase<
      (conv1): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn1d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn1d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn1d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn1d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn1d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (conv2): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn2d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn2d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn2d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn2d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1.1.bn2d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (relu): ReLU<>
      >
    >
  (layer2): SequentialCell<...>
  (layer3): SequentialCell<...>
  (layer4): SequentialCell<...>
  (flatten): Flatten<>
  (end_point): Dense<input_channels=512, output_channels=10, has_bias=True>
  >

For details about the ResNet-18 definition, see resnet.py.

Applying the Quantization Algorithm

A quantization network is a network with pseudo quantization nodes generated after the network layer to be quantized is modified based on the original network definition, constructs the SlbQuantAwareTraining class under MindSpore Golden Stick, and applies it to the original network to transform the original network into a quantization network.

from mindspore_gs import SlbQuantAwareTraining as SlbQAT
from mindspore import QuantDtype

...
algo = SlbQAT()
algo.set_weight_quant_dtype(QuantDtype.INT1)
algo.set_act_quant_dtype(QuantDtype.INT8)
algo.set_enable_act_quant(True)
algo.set_enable_bn_calibration(True)
algo.set_epoch_size(100)
algo.set_has_trained_epoch(0)
algo.set_t_start_val(1.0)
algo.set_t_start_time(0.2)
algo.set_t_end_time(0.6)
algo.set_t_factor(1.2)
quant_net = algo.apply(net)
print(algo)
print(quant_net)

Print the quantizer. The following information is displayed, including the configuration information of each attribute, which can be used to check whether the algorithm is successfully configured.

SlbQuantAwareTraining<weight_quant_dtype=INT1, act_quant_dtype=INT8, enable_act_quant=True, enable_bn_calibration=True, epoch_size=100, has_trained_epoch=0, t_start_val=1.0, t_start_time=0.2, t_end_time=0.6, t_factor=1.2>

The quantized network structure is as follows, QuantizeWrapperCell is the encapsulation class of SLB quantization to the original Conv2d, including the pseudo-quantization node of the original operator and weight. Users can modify the algorithm configuration by referring to API and confirm whether the algorithm is configured successfully by checking the attributes of the QuantizeWrapperCell.

ResNetOpt<
  (_handler): ResNet<...>
  (conv1): Conv2d<input_channels=3, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(7, 7), stride=(2, 2), pad_mode=pad, padding=3, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
  (bn1): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=1e-05, momentum=0.9, gamma=Parameter (name=bn1.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=bn1.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=bn1.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=bn1.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
  (pad): Pad<>
  (maxpool): MaxPool2d<kernel_size=3, stride=2, pad_mode=VALID>
  (layer1): SequentialCellOpt<
    (_handler): SequentialCell<...>
    (cell_list_0): ResidualBlockBaseOpt<
      (_handler): ResidualBlockBase<...>
      (conv1): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn1d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn1d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn1d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn1d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn1d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (conv2): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn2d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn2d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn2d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn2d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.0.bn2d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (relu): ReLU<>
      (Conv2dSlbQuant): QuantizeWrapperCell<
        (_handler): Conv2dSlbQuant<
          in_channels=64, out_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), weight_bit_num=1, stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False
          (fake_quant_weight): SlbFakeQuantizerPerLayer<bit_num=1>
          >
        (_input_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        (_output_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        >
      (Conv2dSlbQuant_1): QuantizeWrapperCell<
        (_handler): Conv2dSlbQuant<
          in_channels=64, out_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), weight_bit_num=1, stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False
          (fake_quant_weight): SlbFakeQuantizerPerLayer<bit_num=1>
          >
        (_input_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        (_output_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        >
      >
    (cell_list_1): ResidualBlockBaseOpt_1<
    (_handler): ResidualBlockBase<...>
      (conv1): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn1d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn1d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn1d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn1d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn1d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (conv2): Conv2d<input_channels=64, output_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False, weight_init=..., bias_init=zeros, format=NCHW>
      (bn2d): BatchNorm2d<num_features=64, eps=0.0001, momentum=0.09999999999999998, gamma=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn2d.gamma, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), beta=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn2d.beta, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=True), moving_mean=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn2d.moving_mean, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False), moving_variance=Parameter (name=layer1._handler.1.bn2d.moving_variance, shape=(64,), dtype=Float32, requires_grad=False)>
      (relu): ReLU<>
      (Conv2dSlbQuant): QuantizeWrapperCell<
        (_handler): Conv2dSlbQuant<
          in_channels=64, out_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), weight_bit_num=1, stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False
          (fake_quant_weight): SlbFakeQuantizerPerLayer<bit_num=1>
          >
        (_input_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        (_output_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        >
      (Conv2dSlbQuant_1): QuantizeWrapperCell<
        (_handler): Conv2dSlbQuant<
          in_channels=64, out_channels=64, kernel_size=(3, 3), weight_bit_num=1, stride=(1, 1), pad_mode=pad, padding=1, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False
          (fake_quant_weight): SlbFakeQuantizerPerLayer<bit_num=1>
          >
        (_input_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        (_output_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
        >
      >
    >
  (layer2): SequentialCellOpt_1<...>
  (layer3): SequentialCellOpt_3<...>
  (layer4): SequentialCellOpt_5<...>
  (flatten): Flatten<>
  (end_point): Dense<input_channels=512, output_channels=10, has_bias=True>
  (Conv2dSlbQuant): QuantizeWrapperCell<
    (_handler): Conv2dSlbQuant<
      in_channels=3, out_channels=64, kernel_size=(7, 7), weight_bit_num=1, stride=(2, 2), pad_mode=pad, padding=3, dilation=(1, 1), group=1, has_bias=False
      (fake_quant_weight): SlbFakeQuantizerPerLayer<bit_num=1>
      >
    (_input_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
    (_output_quantizer): SlbActQuantizer<bit_num=8, symmetric=False, narrow_range=False, ema=False(0.999), per_channel=False, quant_delay=900>
    >
  >

Compared with the original network, conv in the quantized network is replaced with Conv2dSlbQuant.

Defining the Optimizer, Loss Function, and Training Callbacks

For the SLB quantization algorithm, in addition to the callbacks commonly used in training, some special callbacks in the SLB quantization algorithm need to be defined by calling the callbacks API of the SlbQuantAwareTraining class, such as the callback of dynamic adjustment of the temperature factor.

import mindspore as ms
import mindspore.train.callback as callback
from mindspore.amp import FixedLossScaleManager
from mindspore.train import ModelCheckpoint, CheckpointConfig, LossMonitor, TimeMonitor, Model

step_size = dataset.get_dataset_size()
lr = get_lr(lr_init=config.lr_init,
            lr_end=config.lr_end,
            lr_max=config.lr_max,
            warmup_epochs=config.warmup_epochs,
            total_epochs=config.epoch_size,
            steps_per_epoch=step_size,
            lr_decay_mode=config.lr_decay_mode)
if config.pre_trained:
    lr = lr[config.has_trained_epoch * step_size:]
lr = ms.Tensor(lr)
# define optimizer
group_params = init_group_params(quant_net)
opt = nn.Momentum(group_params, lr, config.momentum, weight_decay=config.weight_decay,
                  loss_scale=config.loss_scale)

loss = init_loss_scale()
loss_scale = FixedLossScaleManager(config.loss_scale, drop_overflow_update=False)
metrics = {"acc"}
model = Model(quant_net, loss_fn=loss, optimizer=opt, loss_scale_manager=loss_scale, metrics=metrics,
                 amp_level="O0", boost_level=config.boost_mode, keep_batchnorm_fp32=False,
                 eval_network=None,
                 boost_config_dict={"grad_freeze": {"total_steps": config.epoch_size * step_size}})

# define callbacks
time_cb = TimeMonitor(data_size=step_size)
loss_cb = LossCallBack(config.has_trained_epoch)

cb = [time_cb, loss_cb]
algo_cb_list = algo.callbacks(model, dataset)
cb += algo_cb_list

ckpt_append_info = [{"epoch_num": config.has_trained_epoch, "step_num": config.has_trained_step}]
config_ck = CheckpointConfig(save_checkpoint_steps=config.save_checkpoint_epochs * step_size,
                             keep_checkpoint_max=config.keep_checkpoint_max,
                             append_info=ckpt_append_info)
ckpt_cb = ModelCheckpoint(prefix="resnet", directory="./ckpt", config=config_ck)
cb += [ckpt_cb]

In the code, get_lr is referenced from lr_generator.py, and init_group_params and init_loss_scale are referenced from train.py.

Training the Model and Saving the Model File

Once the model is defined, the training begins.

dataset_sink_mode = target != "CPU"
model.train(config.epoch_size - config.has_trained_epoch, dataset, callbacks=cb,
            sink_size=dataset.get_dataset_size(), dataset_sink_mode=dataset_sink_mode)

The running result is as follows:

epoch: 1 step: 1562, loss is 1.4536957
Train epoch time: 101539.306 ms, per step time: 65.006 ms
epoch: 2 step: 1562, loss is 1.3616204
Train epoch time: 94238.882 ms, per step time: 60.332 ms
epoch: 3 step: 1562, loss is 1.2128768
Train epoch time: 94237.197 ms, per step time: 60.331 ms
epoch: 4 step: 1562, loss is 0.99068344
Train epoch time: 94084.353 ms, per step time: 60.233 ms
epoch: 5 step: 1562, loss is 0.89842224
Train epoch time: 94498.564 ms, per step time: 60.498 ms
epoch: 6 step: 1562, loss is 0.8985137
Train epoch time: 94106.722 ms, per step time: 60.248 ms

Loading the Model and Comparing the Accuracy

Obtain the accuracy of the common training model according to the steps in the ResNet model repository.

'top_1_accuracy': 0.9544270833333334, 'top_5_accuracy': 0.9969951923076923

Load the model file obtained in the previous step and import the quantized model for accuracy evaluation.

param_dict = ms.load_checkpoint(config.checkpoint_file_path)
ms.load_param_into_net(quant_net, param_dict)
ds_eval = create_dataset(dataset_path=config.data_path, do_train=False, batch_size=config.batch_size,
                         eval_image_size=config.eval_image_size, target=config.device_target)
model = Model(quant_net, loss_fn=loss, metrics={'top_1_accuracy', 'top_5_accuracy'})
acc = model.eval(ds_eval)
print(acc)

'top_1_accuracy': 0.9466145833333334, 'top_5_accuracy': 0.9964050320512820.

Summary

indicates not test yet, NS indicates not supported yet.

Summary of Training

Training in graph mode based on MindSpore，MindSpore Golden Stick，MindSpore Models.

W4 indicates that the weight is quant to 4 bits, W2 indicates that the weight is quant to 2 bits, W1 indicates that the weight is quant to 1 bit, and A8 indicates that the activation is quant to 8 bit.

algorithm	network	dataset	CUDA11 Top1Acc	CUDA11 Top5Acc	Ascend910 Top1Acc	Ascend910 Top5Acc
baseline	resnet18	CIFAR10	94.25%	99.93%	-	-
SLB W4	resnet18	CIFAR10	95.18%	99.67%	NS	NS
SLB W2	resnet18	CIFAR10	95.12%	99.68%	NS	NS
SLB W1	resnet18	CIFAR10	95.23%	99.87%	NS	NS
baseline	resnet18	Imagenet2012	70.14%	89.71%	-	-
SLB W4	resnet18	Imagenet2012	68.65%	88.57%	NS	NS
SLB W2	resnet18	Imagenet2012	68.42%	88.40%	NS	NS
SLB W1	resnet18	Imagenet2012	66.75%	87.08%	NS	NS

It can be found that, in the current task, compared with the full-precision model, the top 1 accuracy of the model after 4-bit weight quantization has no loss, and the top 1 accuracy loss of the model after 1-bit weight quantization is within 0.6%. After the weight was quantified, the accuracy loss of 8bit activation was less than 0.4%. SLB quantization greatly reduces model parameters and computations, making it easier to deploy models on devices with limited resources. The model here is not the final deployment model. Due to the addition of pseudo-quantization nodes and weight probability matrix, the checkpoint size increases compared with the original model. The increase amplitude is affected by the weight quantization bits.

References

[1] Bengio, Yoshua, Nicholas Léonard, and Aaron Courville. Estimating or propagating gradients through stochastic neurons for conditional computation. 2013.

[2] Hanxiao Liu, Karen Simonyan, and Yiming Yang. Darts: Differentiable architecture search. ICLR, 2019.

[3] Yang Z, Wang Y, Han K, et al. Searching for low-bit weights in quantized neural networks. NIPS, 2020.